Toward the horizon, which rises before us,
Toward the horizon, which always goes backwards,
Toward the horizon, which always attracts,
Toward the horizon, which raises uncertainty,
Toward the horizon, which feared,
horizon of unknown strength,
horizon yet impenetrable,
Ku obniżającemu the sky above, Ku
rozszalałemu sea bottom, in spite nieprzetartemu
Route
must follow our ship .
(Song of the Polynesian sailors going)
have a unique heritage. Our ancestors were the greatest sailors of the stone age ... we give about the past are part of our tradition, our history and achievements of our ancestors. All that we inherited from the past and that we should all be proud of.
(Te Rangi Hiro)
Toward the horizon, which always goes backwards,
Toward the horizon, which always attracts,
Toward the horizon, which raises uncertainty,
Toward the horizon, which feared,
horizon of unknown strength,
horizon yet impenetrable,
Ku obniżającemu the sky above, Ku
rozszalałemu sea bottom, in spite nieprzetartemu
Route
must follow our ship .
(Song of the Polynesian sailors going)
have a unique heritage. Our ancestors were the greatest sailors of the stone age ... we give about the past are part of our tradition, our history and achievements of our ancestors. All that we inherited from the past and that we should all be proud of.
(Te Rangi Hiro)
considering different, more or less likely scenarios for the future the shape of international relations usually focuses attention on Eurasia, arguing, not without reason that the distribution of power and influence in this part of the world is and will remain crucial for the global political interdependence. This observation is as much a right as trivial, because of course the overwhelming majority of the potential that may serve to control the terrestrial globe gathered is precisely the Eurasian part of the "Big Island". Various geopolitical thinkers, of course, saw the various dimensions of this potential, placing the them in different parts of Eurasia, but the key has always been their focus on this area.
One of the few exceptions was the American Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) , author of several historical analysis of world conflicts, the result of which the key role attributed to maritime trade and control of marine traffic routes. Mahan, cautioning against, in his view is common in democratic countries, neglect of the marine strategy and the right of American strategic thought isolationism (in 1880, supplied the U.S. Navy remained less than one hundred generally obsolete ships, many of which are rust on the docks), called for the extension of control by the State over Hawaii and the Philippines in the Pacific, and Cuba in the Caribbean Sea, which in turn would allow control of the entrances to the Panama Canal (built in 1904 -1914) and free redeployment of its U.S. fleet between the oceans. Indications Mahan, acting as advisers to President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909), expressed in such works as The Interest of America in Sea Power (1898), used to determine directions American policy in the Pacific, in the course of which was attached Baker Island (1857), Howland Island (1857), Kingman Reef (1858), Midway Islands (1867), Frigates (1898), Island Johnston (1898), Wake Island (1898), Hawaii (1898), Palmyra Atoll (1898), the Island of Guam (1898), Philippines (1898) Islands of Samoa (1899, ), Aleutian (1899), Pribyłowa Islands (1910), and then, provided preponderencję U.S. fleet in the Pacific (1922). But the most interesting observations were made in Mahan, published in 1900, working The Problem of Asia , in which He predicted growth of the conflict between allied with each other the United Kingdom and the United States and their alliances, combined with Japan and Germany and the Russian-Chinese bloc. The object of rivalry of the two blocs would become the areas lying between 30 and 40 parallel, and, above all countries of East China sea waters, the Yellow and Japan.
interest and presence in the Pacific of the United States were therefore linked to commercial interests and the penetration of American capital, both on islands and archipelagos of the Ocean, and on the Asian continent. William Seward (1801-1872) , secretary of state during the presidency of Andrew Johnson (1865-1869) expressed this by saying that the United States must control the trade "in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and continents."
That's the nature of where to look at him more closely, the Americans took control of the northernmost tip of the Polynesian, which existed between 1810-1893 United Kingdom of Hawaii (in the years 1810-1874 under the rule of Kamehameha dynasty in the years 1874-1893 under Kalakua family rule). Since the beginning of the nineteenth century there lived on the archipelago is constantly increasing in number community of American and European growers and employed by them Chinese, Japanese and Portuguese workers. In 1819, started its activities on the islands of the American Council of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, which was the real purpose of the Americanization of the archipelago. Increasing since 1810, the number of followers of Christianity led to a series of incidents involving the French fleet (1839, 1849) and British (1843), in spite of the successive rulers tried to preserve the independence of Hawaii.
good example can be frustrate attempts to subjugate Russia in the north of the archipelago islands of Kauai. The Russians first arrived there in 1804 from the nearby Alaska, exchanging furs wyder on vegetables, fruits and meat. In 1815, George Lisjanski, captain of the Neva to remain on duty the Russian-American Fur Company, who on behalf of the empire of the Tsars dealt with the exploration of Russian America, with the help of his envoy, Dr Anthony George Sheffer, entered into an agreement with Kaumaualii (ruler of Kauai in the years 1794 -1810, then zhołdowany by Kamehameha I), according to which that put the island under the care of Tsar Alexander I (1801-1825) in agreeing to build by the Russians and the Fort Alexander Fort Elizabeth. Then the Russians met with Kamehameha I (1810-1819) to give its consent to the opening of trading post on Oahu, not far from the port of Honolulu. But when it became clear that there is also another fort erected, over which she began waving Russian flag, and Sheffer work without the knowledge or permission czar, both Kamehameha I and commanded the Russians to leave Kaumaualii already erected towers, and these were taken over for the defense of Hawaii or demolished.
Hawaiians had less success in dealing with Americans, because of the great strategic importance for the United States had the port of Pearl Harbor, as early as 1842, U.S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster (1840-1842, 1850-1852) stated that his country "with reluctance" to occupy the islands patrzyłby by any other power. In 1875, the American-Hawaiian signed a treaty according to which Hawaii is committed not to transfer or donation of the lease of any portion of its territory to third country. On the basis of reciprocity also exempted from the duty Hawaiian sugar imported into the United States, which quickly led to a huge fortunes of the White settled on the islands and who are the owners of the plantation. Forced by their constitution from 1887 did the Hawaii constitutional monarchy in which political rights conditional on their assets, which ultimately gave the power in the hands of Whites dominated by economic elites. In the same year an agreement was renewed from 1875 and the United States guaranteed the exclusive possession of Hawaii fortified naval base at Pearl Harbor, near Honolulu. When you were abolished import duties on sugar to the United States not only in Hawaii, but also from other countries in the world, and growers country have received government grants, settled on the islands of whites in 1893 stirred up a revolt against the will seek to minimize the political role of Queen Liliuokalani (1891-1893). The revolt received the support of U.S. Marines and led to the dethronement of the monarch, but the rebels are calling for a formal annexation by the United States took effect only during the war with Spain and was justified by the strategic consequences of a possible seizure of islands by Germany or Japan.
Similar considerations determined the strategic mastery of the Americans, Western Samoa. The idea was transformed into a naval base for a very convenient inland bay on the island of Pago Pago, Tutuila. The first agreement with an American commanders have concluded in 1872, but they did not go to Congress. Six years later ratified later signed a treaty granting the Americans to the port of Pago Pago on the principle of extraterritoriality, and trade concessions. In return, the United States had to ensure Samoa mediation in the event of a dispute with another country. Similar agreements also signed by representatives of Germany and the United Kingdom. During the civil war in 1887, but Germany backed their own pretender to the throne, and settle it on him, setting his custody over him. During the conference, in Berlin in 1899, the island finally partitioned between Germany and the United States, while the British had to settle situated further south and part of the Tonga Islands in Solomon Islands.
the end of the nineteenth century, the U.S. managed to subdue so crucial for access to areas of the Northern Asia Pacific region with two of the key to strategic control of ports in the region of Pearl Harbor and Pago Pago. The U.S. navy has acquired facilities in a major port for the free space between the maneuvering in British Columbia, Bering Sea and the North-West Basin opening of its output toward Japan.
the southwest, U.S. possessions sąsiadowały with the British. United Kingdom possessed in 1874 the Fiji Islands, in 1885 the southern part of the Solomon Islands, in 1886 the New Hebrides, in 1888 the Cook Islands (in the years 1858-1901 as the Kingdom of Rarotonga), in 1889, Line Islands and Phoenix Islands in 1892, finally, Ellice Islands, and Gilbert Islands. Since 1900, the British protectorate was extended over the existing since 1845 the Kingdom of Tonga (independence within the Commonwealth recovered in 1970). Cut off from the main body of the territorial British possessions of French Polynesia has remained contained from 1838, under the administration of the British island of Pitcairn.
France won the Pacific archipelagos which are most important for the development of Polynesian culture, what else will be discussed later in my argument. Since 1842, the Society Islands (which includes the archipelagos of islands in the Windward Islands and the Wind), became a protectorate of France, since 1889, enabled them to Etablissement Francais de l'Ocean , since 1958 has become an overseas territory of France as part of French Polynesia. Located on the west from them Tuamotu Islands were annexed by France in 1844, the neighboring Gambier Islands in 1881, advanced the furthest to the northeast and are yet another addition to the Society Islands, Polynesian cultural center of radiation attached Marquesas in 1842, the same year also include the archipelago Tubuai.
political division of the Pacific Ocean at the beginning of the twentieth century, complete the remaining property of the English Philippines and included Caroline archipelagos of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Palau Islands, Marian, and that Spain sold to Germany in the years 1885-1899. To the north of them were located dominated by Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, archipelagoes, Boni, Volcano, and scored on China in 1895, Formosa. Between the German and Japanese property is acquired wrzynała in 1898 to Spain by the United States adjacent to the Marians Island of Guam.
particularly important strategic and geopolitical future were to get the Philippines located between Japan and the rubber-rich and oil Dutch and British possessions in Malaya and the East Indies. The role of the Philippines were aware of U.S. President William McKinley (1897-1901) and Deputy Secretary for the Navy in its administration, young Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) . Inspired by the latter, in April 1898, during the ongoing English-American War with Cuba, the commander stationed in Hong Kong American squadron consisting of four cruisers and two gunboats Commodore George Dewey, was presented to the Philippine port of Manila, destroying or taking prisoners the entire English fleet stationed there. August 13 this year, the day after the signing of the armistice, enhanced food branches Mobile Dewey and support them insurgents Philippine forces occupied the town of Emil Aquinalda. Not discussed previously in the United States presented the prospect of annexation of the Philippines has many advantages in the form of opportunities to deliver them by American capitalists, oil and textiles to China, covers the planned transoceanicznego cable that will connect the island of Hawaii, Wake Island in the direction of Guam, and finally it was a convenient area for the penetration of Protestant societies mission. Sanctioned by the Treaty of February 1899, taking over the Philippines sucked the United States lasted until mid-1902 the war with the guerrillas controlling most of the first islands far beyond the capital. Meanwhile, in 1900 the Philippines came under the chairmanship of the committee Judge William Howard Taft to develop the introduction of civil government in the islands. In July 1901, Taft was Civil Governor of the Philippines, which he was subject to the provincial governors. Adopted by the U.S. Congress in the next year the government of the Philippines Act identifies them "unorganized territory", while their inhabitants citizens of the Philippines. In 1916, another act stated that the U.S. grant the Philippines independence at an unspecified date. Already in 1934, another piece of legislation set out a ten-year transitional period to precede the granting of independence, the Philippines, in the same year was developed and approved a constitution and elected the first president. Philippines formally gained independence in July 1946, before the presence of the United States at this archipelago, as it seems, a serious outbreak of war decided on a Japanese-American in the Pacific.
position of Japan in Northeast Asia and northwestern parts of the Pacific strengthened in a crucial way during the First World War, when the state is, came up to the war against the Germans, took their insular possessions in Micronesia in the form of the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, Marians Islands and Palau. At the same time the German colonies of the Sudety Nowogwinejskiego and around the Sea of \u200b\u200bMelanesia, that is part of German New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, Nauru (located west of the Gilbert Islands), Samoa and German have been overrun by the British Empire. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, all of these gains were found to be mandated territories "C", which were to be governed "under the rule of law trustee" and distributed appropriately Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
Further geopolitical "pulsing" Oceania region was associated with a growing Japanese-American conflict; leading the way since 1895, a systematic expansion in East Asia, Japan has acted across zadekretowanej in 1899 by the American Secretary of State John Hay, "an open door policy" in China ( open door policy ), a doctrinal basis for U.S. operations this region. The growing involvement of Japan in China, leading it to the occupation of Manchuria in 1931, interim occupation of Shanghai in 1932 and finally to withdraw from the League of Nations in 1933, resulted in the outbreak of the regular Sino-Japanese War in April 1937, the view of the gradual widening of United States exports to Japan raw materials and energy carrying military equipment, while at the same time the ongoing deliveries to China, Japanese strategists attention turned to Southeast Asia. The first goal was French Indochina, where the summer of 1940 Japan occupying Saigon, has acquired the right to march their troops towards the southern Chinese border, the right to use the French airfields in Indochina, the right to share in the administration of these territories as well as the closure of the railway line leading to China which had been previously supplied arms fighting the Chinese army. One glance at the map leads them to the request must be in a convenient position, which thanks to this move received Japan and South China Sea to the Strait of Malacca, through which led the shortest route from Europe to Asia and using the previously supplied by the port in Hong Kong for the Chinese army weapons (mostly American arms was exported to the British Isles, and thence then to Asia.) Japan has also achieved excellent output on weak Kingdom of Thailand, the British possessions in Burma and India, where it could easily cut the lead to China so. "Burmese way" and the rich in rubber, non-ferrous metals, crude oil, coal, and fertile arable land (including in Java), Dutch East Indies. In July 1941, Japan took its protectorate, the French in Indochina, U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945) froze all Japanese assets located in the United States armed forces has enabled the Philippines to the U.S. Army and appointed chief commander of all U.S. forces in Asia, General Douglas MacArthur and introduced restrictions on the sale of oil to Japan, two months later converted to an embargo. Meanwhile
Japan since September 1940, Berlin remained a party to the pact, which the other two signatories were Germany and Italy. Germany gave to understand, however, do not intend to abandon the colony once lost in the Pacific, as well as looked curiously at the French and Dutch possessions in Asia, while in the German press, it was argued that the fruits of victory over the two countries, both in Europe and Asia, should fall to the Germans. (Cf. George Lipinski, Second World War at Sea , Gdańsk 1976, pages 470-471). The reaction of the Anglo-Saxons on the pact in Berlin was the signing of an agreement on strategic cooperation in the Pacific.
It was probably the German-Japanese conflict in the Pacific and the failure of Japan's confrontation with the USSR in 1938-1939, in the vicinity of the lake and river Chasan Chałchyn-gol in Mongolia have decided that in April 1941, the Japanese government decided to sign an agreement for non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, while at the conference in July 1941 decided to learning hostilities against the USSR only in the case of reference decisive victory on the Eastern Front by Germany and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the Far East. Not having sufficiently large forces to conduct the war in China at the same time, shield border with the Soviet Union and threaten the United States, in September 1941 decided to implement the strategic plan contained in the calculated displacement of the western powers of their possessions in Southeast Asia. The final decision was taken at a government conference on Nov. 5, 1941, the plan assumed the Japanese pushed the opponents of the long-positions in Aleutach and Hawaii, to Mongolia and India, to Australia in the south, finally. Archipelagos in the Pacific had become a fortified defensive belt, under the cover of the Japanese forces and transports manewrowałyby freely on the shortest routes between India and Malajami Dutch and the Japanese Archipelago, dowożąc valuable resources. Japanese planners believed in the possibility of destroying the U.S. Pacific Fleet in the repulse of Western forces as far from the Japanese islands, they miss their own databases and thousands of miles away from their own continent, and in addition engaged in war with Germany, the Western states opt for peace on favorable Japan's terms.
As a result, December 7, 1941 at the same time Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Midway, Wake, Guam, Hong Kong, Singapore and Manila. The attack has brought limited success, however, failed in his course completely neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The outcome of the struggle on the ocean was the final outcome of war depend. Japanese attack was carried out by the East Indies to Australia could be prevented thanks to the constant supply of weapons carried by American Samoa and Fiji. Similarly, in the Bismarck Archipelago counteroffensive led by Anglo-Saxons was made possible by the existence of these routes of supply. The safety of the Japanese islands depended on the blocking action of the American fleet in the North Pacific. In June 1942, the Japanese fleet but failed to master the lining of the Midway Islands Access to Hawaii, and during the battle lost the top four carriers. In November 1943, U.S. troops under the command of Admiral. Chester Nimitz took possession belonging to the Gilbert Islands, Tarawa and Makin atolls, which in turn offered them to the Marshall Islands (mastered in January 1944) and further to the Marianas (Saipan control in June 1944.) Occupation Marian and victory in the south-eastern theater of the struggle put Japan within range of U.S. air and determined the outcome of the war.
As we can infer from the short zreferowanego over the course of the war in the Pacific islands of control and the archipelagos of the ocean was the key opening the door to be in Asia or America. The importance of this, it seems, the reservoir retains to this day, and the contemporary state of international relations in the region to some extent corresponds to the prediction the adm. Mahan, working together on a strategic level, the United States, Japan, South Korea and the Republic of China on Taiwan, they seem to take measures to prevent the significant presence of China in South China and East China seas, the output of which, in turn, would enable China to achieve the status of the People's power supra. Mastery of the Pacific islands seems to be in the condition of the global coverage of the fleet and political interests to the interested Powers. Islands and archipelagos of the Middle Pacific, yet it is true in general, "geopolitically dormant" since the end of the war in principle, inaccessible to any other powers than the United States, which are the most important part of the Polynesian archipelagos, would be so, or rather could be the case challenging the U.S. dominance over them, what Zbigniew Brzezinski has called "geopolitical pivot". According to Brzezinski Pins are geopolitical countries whose meaning is not clear from their power or ambition, but rather with an important geographical location and their potential consequences of instability for the behavior of geostrategic players. Which country serves as a geopolitical pin, is often due to its geographical location, sometimes they get thanks to this special role, because it may give an important player access to sensitive areas or to block it. In some cases, geopolitical pin may be a defensive shield for a key state or even region (Quoted by Z. Brzezinski, Great Chessboard , Warsaw 1999, p. 41). Having therefore anticipate the possible future rivalry between the "continental" Chinese power and the "sea" of American power efficient and durable control of Polynesia, previously nakreśliwszy short historical overview of the region, worth a closer look at the political and geographic circumstances.
the political consciousness of modern Polynesians had developed a considerable influence during the colonial ideology of national revival. A good its expression is cited at the beginning of the text word was under the influence of this ideology of Maori anthropologist and ethnologist Te Rangi Hiro (1877-1951, also known under the name Peter Henry Buck) . In 1897 he graduated from the College of New Zealand Te Aute, founded in 1854 by an Anglican missionary Samuel Williams, with the aim of teaching young Maori. The walls of this university educated first generation of Maori intelligentsia, educated in the spirit of attachment to national traditions and faith in the successful development of Maori culture in new times. Sam Te Rangi Hiro, after years of Te Aute said steered my life in such a way that which would not be possible in any university
While some of the findings made by Te Rangi Hiro was falsified in the following years, a reminder at this point also raised by him would be appropriate from the viewpoint of the analysis of the development of Polynesian nationalist thought and the national mythology. He was so Te Rangi Hiro proponent of the view on the internal unity of Polynesian culture, both due to be distinct from the neighboring cultures of Melanesia. Similarly, the Pacific Islands would be, in his opinion, only colonized by Polynesians, not preceded by any previous wave of migration. This colonization would proceed as planned, by dealing the next adjacent islands. Its trail was the news from East Asia, the archipelagos of Micronesia, and then, their main centers have become the Society Islands and the Marquesas. The lands inhabited by Polynesians were arranged in the shape of a triangle whose vertices would Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island, and its basis were placed archipelagos of Samoa and Tonga. Center from which radiated a culture of people of the islands of the triangle was to be the Society Islands, regional centers, Samoa and Tonga in the east, and the Marquesas Islands in the west. For the marginal culture ogólnopolinezyjskiej mutation had existed on the tops of the islands forming the "Polynesian triangle. Illustrates his thesis Buck indication of kinship mythology, material culture and languages \u200b\u200bof the islands populated by Polynesians. The differences between the internal development of individual translators Polynesian Cultural variations in the conditions of its adaptation to the local environment, presenting the same approach of ecological and cultural-historical konkretno. The value of Polynesian culture, measured by the functional fit to the environment having its generators lead to cultural achievements do not fit the patterns of Western scientistic anthropology. Polynesian culture - the basic framework was drawn from Asia and Eastern Europe - have shaped up during the migration of Polynesians and adaptation to living conditions in the Pacific Ocean. Pointing to its particular value, he emphasized Te Rangi Hiro exceptional navigational and sailing skills Neolithic sailors inhabiting the Pacific islands, as well as their talents allow mnemonic preserve the memory of ancestors and genealogies in the conditions of ignorance of the letter. He also pointed to the high development of thought mythological its abstract philosophical concepts and evolutionary concepts, elaborate cosmological and theological content. Buck, a significant part of the book deal with sometimes very complex and tedious to read descriptions of the various islands and the mythology of mutual inspiration, which she underwent between the centers. At the root of indicated or called for by Buck ogólnopolinezyjskiej community would be a community of language, the same basic foundations of culture, historical consciousness of common fate and characteristics of mental Polynesians.
guides on the tradition of the unity of the peoples of Polynesia, or the past; Buck existing lists from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, the federation of the Society Islands, Cook Islands, Tubuai, and some islands of the archipelago of Tuamotu, bearing the name of the Friendship Alliance. Living on the federation comprising the tribes of the islands remained in close touch with each other and recognize the economic and religious prestige Raiatei sovereignty of the island (Society archipelago), and diffusion occurs between them, formed a single cultural nature of culture środkowopolinezyjskiej. Another mentioned by Te Rangi Hiro ogólnopolinezyjskim political phenomenon has been established in the mid-nineteenth century knight Arioi Association. A more detailed description of the present Soviet scientist Alexander Kondratowa (cf. Alexander Kondratowa, lost civilizations , Warsaw 1973, pages 195-200) write that it was a brotherhood, whose branches reached to Mangareva, Raratonga, the Marquesas and Easter Island (where the The compound was to take over power of subduing the local population and dominating over it until the late seventeenth century). It was incorporated in honor of the god Oro, whose most important temple was at Taputapu-Atea on the island of Raiatea, where he was the strongest influence of the Union. Compound in their activities resembled a traveling theater troupe moving from island to island, for each of her visit, arranging pantomime, performing choral songs and hymns in praise of the gods and the high priests, accompanied by the beating of drums and blowing of shells and dramatic performances, whose theme was the historical events and mythological scenes. Usually a few days of celebrations were accompanied by dancing and spectacle of war. The Association may join anyone willing, with the ceremony of adoption was very powerful and rich, while the newcomers were given a new name. Members of the Association promoted in the hierarchy of seven varying degrees of initiation, initiated with different decorations and tattoos. Itinerant nature of the associations did need to resort to predatory methods of obtaining food, which of course gave rise to dissatisfaction łupionych on this occasion the peasants and owners niszczonymi sowing fields, but the compounds Arioi of aristocratic families and wodzowskimi and aura surrounding the sanctity and integrity made him not only a rebellion against him for a long time were not possible, but they also played a factor Arioi mood and sedation were called to a particular islands in case of threats of violence. Finally, the Association has been exterminated by Polynesians themselves (as is the case, inter alia, on Easter Island about 1680 onwards) or the structure collapsed under pressure from Christian missionaries.
findings of modern anthropology based on archaeological and linguistic studies refute some of the hypotheses Te Rangi Hiro, now rejects the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of distinct cultural boundaries between Polynesia and Melanesia and Micronesia, emphasizing rather the inter-relationships of all these regions. Polynesian languages \u200b\u200bare classified as one of the four sub-groups (the other three subgroups occur in a small area covering Halmaherę, the nearby islands of eastern Indonesia and western New Guinea) to a group of Middle Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages. Together with a group of Western Malayo-Polynesian languages, the group is considered to be sub-languages Malayo-Polynesian - along with three more frequent among podrodzinami today representing 2% of the total population of the island of indigenous Taiwanese - classified as Austronesian language family (see Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel. fates of human societies, Warsaw 2000, p. 406 ) ..
Polynesians, it is considered in terms of anthropology, for Austronezyjczyków, praojczyzna which was located in southern China. About four thousand years BC in this area began to produce a polished stone tools and a characteristic type ceramics odnajdywanej also in Taiwan. Around 3500 BC the peoples of southern China have colonization of Taiwan, and from there around 3000 BC had colonized the Philippines, then turn Borneo, Celebes, c. 2500 BC Timor, the Celebes Halmaherę settle around 1600 BC, from Borneo, Java and Sumatra, with Halmahery to move about 1600 BC on the Bismarck Archipelago, from Borneo to the Malay Peninsula and Vietnam (where today their descendants who live Czamowie), the Bismarck Archipelago around 1600 BC to the Solomon Islands, thence to Santa Cruz, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, while a separate wave of settlers from Santa Cruz around 1200 BC have infested New Caledonia. The settlement came a wave of Samoa at the beginning of our era to the Marquesas, Society Islands and the Cook Islands, the Marquesas to the Tuamotus, and about 500 on to Hawaii and Easter Island. The last footsteps have been populated by Polynesians Pitcairn, which dopłynięto around 1000, the Tuamotu and New Zealand, where at the same time the expedition reached the Cook Islands. Finally, in 1300, the Maoris of New Zealand have discovered and colonized to the west of the Chatham Islands. To draw a complete picture of migration Austronezyjczyków yet to be mentioned about the colonization of Madagascar, we carried out in the sixth century people of Borneo. Mastering
previously uninhabited islands in the Pacific Ocean was possible thanks to applying to the human economy of plants, which include coconut palms, breadfruit tree, banana plant, plantan from the tuber of taro, yam Chinese, arrowroot, turmeric and sweet potato. For the manufacture of clothing mulberry paper used for the manufacture of containers, a small gourd. Among the animals were kept pigs, chickens and dogs. Also eaten seafood, fish, sharks, sea turtles, porpoises and molluscs. The distant sea voyages were possible through the use of canoes with double floats, fixed on the perpendicular supports and which make the boat virtually niewywrotną.
Like Te Rangi Hiro thesis concerning settlement order and routes the islands of Polynesia, a correction also requires the opinion of the exceptional adaptability Polynesians, if in fact there is no doubt that they were able to take full advantage of even the most adverse environmental conditions, it colonization their land is almost always caused a very large loss of habitat, led to the extinction of many species animals and plants and to deforestracji. Most known cases of animal species inhabiting the pogrom, the Pacific islands before the arrival of man, it was extinct flightless geese and moa birds in Hawaii and New Zealand, but much more far-reaching ecological and demographic consequences of overexploitation of the environment was in the south-eastern and eastern Polynesia.
In south-eastern Polynesia, the network has played a key role of trade links between the persistence of Mangareva, Pitcairn and Henderson, in the west and reaching the Marquesas, Society, and Tubuai Islands. Of the three islands, Mangareva have everything you need to feed the population of several thousand stocks. There were fish, crustaceans (including a particularly prized pearl oysters czarnousta, which, inter alia, cut the shell fishhooks), land suitable for cultivation patatów, yam, taro, breadfruit and banana trees. There were no resources useful in the manufacture of stone axes (on the islands and coral atolls in the lagoon Mangarevy there are only coarse-grained basalt deposits is not suitable for producing good quality sharp tools), which is the raw material was imported from neighboring Pitcairn Islands. On this numbering a mere six square kilometers of island deposits are fine-grained basalt and volcanic glass completely meet the needs of residents Mangarevy. Small size, unfavorable fishing, shellfish and fish, no coral reefs, the lack of suitable agricultural land due to the steepness of slopes of a volcano, around which was an island, make it able to survive there for only about stuosobowa population. At the easternmost island situated Henderson prevail least favorable conditions for settlers. The island is a coral reef uplifted above the surface ocean by geologic processes on which the lack of permanent streams and sources of fresh water (only existing sprinkler six meters from the shore, in waters of the ocean), and the soil suitable for cultivation occurs only in some places. Were abundant marine resources and the fauna of Henderson, in the coastal waters of the vein of lobsters, crabs, octopus, fish and shellfish on the beach to this day sea turtles nest, and in the interior of the island gniazdowało seventeen species of seabirds, and there were nine species of land birds. Grown in a few plant species in the north-west of the island, which was for this purpose previously burned and transformed into stone gardens. Goods exported from Henderson was the most likely food and luxury goods, red parrot feathers and live sea turtles. Trade between the islands ended in mid-1500, after which several dozen population of Henderson, where there were no trees large enough that they can be used for making canoes, was imprisoned on the island and probably a little over a hundred years, ceased to exist. A similar fate befell the populations living located to the west Pitcairn, whose population cut off from supplies from Mangarevy was unable to survive independently. At the same Mangarevie stone gardens resulted in the establishment of deforestation of the upper stretches of land, but then the local soil erosion and reduce yields. Not having wood to build canoes, the inhabitants Mangarevy severed business relationships with both archipelagos in the west, as well as the Pitcairn and Henderson, which sentenced him settled on the latter two to be exterminated. In the meantime, there Mangarevie to the disappearance of oceanic fisheries, the collapse of the political system, civil wars, famine and, finally, cannibalism, when deprived of protein people started to satisfy their demands are not eating the flesh of both the newly dead, and has buried people. To deforestation also brought to Pitcairn, where he also has been the destruction of five of the nine species of land birds and six species of nesting seabirds, which obviously reduced the available food resources, causing the result that the island no one is left alive.
somewhat similar to the ecological and demographic disaster occurred on the eastern-most upper part of Polynesia, namely, on Easter Island. With a population of yourself during the peak probably from six to thirty thousand inhabitants of the island's population fed on meat caught in the ocean full of dolphins and tuna are common, and porpoises, sea birds and land. The latter was probably the six species and was among them, including one species of herons, two parrots and a barn owl. On the island gniazdowało also 26 species of seabirds, making it the richest of their breeding ground throughout Polynesia, and perhaps around the Pacific Ocean. Occasionally ate seal meat, big lizards, sea turtles. Continues to use rat meat arrived on the island with the colonists. Deforestation for cultivation and the need to act both as a cult (cremation of the dead, the construction of the famous stone platforms and statues), as well as economic resulted in a complete deforestation of the island. The result was soil erosion, the drainage and the leaching of nutrients, resulting in reduced crop yields. As a result of a combination of factors as overfishing, deforestracji and foraging rats became extinct on the island, most species of birds, consumed shellfish were smaller and less numerous, have become inaccessible ocean fish and dolphins. Famine caused the collapse of the previously integrated political and economic system of the island, which cooperated and competed with each other peacefully eleven or twelve adjacent tribal territories. War, the rejection of the old religion (which became a symbol of the destruction of the stone statues), and cannibalism resulting ecological catastrophe of Easter Island population declined by 70% until its discovery by Cpt. Jacob Roggeveen in 1722 and then more accurately study in 1774 by Cpt. James Cook.
Reflecting on the causes of ecological disaster, which occurred on Easter Island, and more specifically on the causes of deforestation, a cultural anthropologist and geographer Jared Diamond shows its special ecological sensitivity to similar dangers. In his view, the islands, rather dry than moist, situated rather on cold, high latitudes than in the warm and close to the equator, which is rather old than young volcanic islands, volcanic islands, rather small than large, distant, rather than close to other islands, rather lowland than the highlands, rather without makatei (uplifted by geological processes of coral reef) than makateą, rather devoid of volcanic ash precipitation than those in which rainfall any, will be relatively free of dust with rainfall of hurricanes in Central Asia than those over which it arrives, will be more vulnerable on deforestation. (See Jared Diamond, collapse. Why do some societies collapsed while others have succeeded , Warsaw 2007, pages 106-108). Analysis of the intensity of each of these factors, both referenced to Easter Island and to Manmgarevy shows their very high sensitivity on deforestation. In this way can also explain why the grave was largely deforested Cook Islands, Tubuai and the leeward side of the main islands of Hawaii and Fiji, while Tonga, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Bismarck and the largest island in the archipelago of Tuamotu Makatea remain for the most part wooded, just as the Society Islands, the Marquesas and the windward side of Hawaii's largest island and Fiji, where a larger amount of retained primary forests, while lower secondary forests, ferns and grasses.
glance both the past and the ecology and geography of Polynesia show that there exist states are not able to finish in the long geopolitical entities as independent. In the case of an association of independent (and on the observer and associate member of the subsidiaries) in the region, namely the Pacific Islands Forum (transformed in 2000 from an existing since 1972, the South Pacific Forum), a major role of economic assistance and organization of the two largest countries are members ie, Australia and New Zealand. Both these countries are, however, relatively little related to the historical heritage of Polynesia, the native population Australia probably comes from migrants who came there and settled on a location further to the north of the islands of Indonesia from about 40 thousand years ago. In Indonesia, these people (outside of New Guinea and located on the northwest of the Solomon Islands, archipelagos and the Bismarck Islands) were eradicated by the above-described Austronesian colonists, who gave also the beginning of the modern Polynesian population. Currently, Australia's original inhabitants make up only a half-three percent of the total population of the country. In turn, on the islands inhabited by Polynesians of New Zealand's population of origin austronezyjskiego is today only a little over 14% of the total population. New Zealand, next to Hawaii and New Caledonia, was the only archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, which formed numerous colonies of White, which in time zmajoryzowały native population numbers. In other areas of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the State obtained the temporary dominance of the West because of its technical and economic advantages, have failed to subordinate themselves politically colonized countries and the European and American people were restrained from moving there by the disease, unfavorable climate or difficult natural conditions. The fact remains the ethnic distinctiveness of Polynesian history and culture from the remaining part of the modern nations of the West Australian and New Zealand, currently dominating the Pacific Islands Forum. This organization appears to be associate entities belonging to the separate circles of civilization (in the sense which the word "civilization" used the Samuel Huntington and Felix Koneczny) and, therefore, be a product of artificial, threatening traditional culture and identity of the Polynesians, such as that described many years ago Te Rangi Hiro. Koneczny already named Felix and Samuel Huntington - deservedly considered to be outstanding contributors science civilizations - emphasized the harmfulness and artificiality of integrating nations and entities belonging to different cultures. Regarding their findings to the principles and practices of the operation of the Pacific Islands Forum should be noted that it is a tool Westernization and expansion of the Polynesian demoliberalnej ideology, as proof you can bring up the removal of the organization in May 2009, the Republic of Fiji, which justifies violations by the strongest military Pacific state of democracy and the so-called rules. "Human rights". Appears Of course the question of alternative policy direction of the Pacific, which more closely correspond to their real identity of the historical, cultural and ethnic identity. Above already mentions the relationship of language and ethnic Polynesia merging with Indonesia. The population of the nearly 250 million people in the regional power, is able to boast an ancient cultural tradition, and having all the conditions to becoming a superpower, does not have the status of an associate or observer status at the Pacific Islands Forum. The tradition of the Indonesian nation find their source in Java, which austronezyjscy residents, using the opportunities offered by growing soils of volcanic islands, formed under the influence of the kingdom of India, to learn the skill in writing and built a magnificent Buddhist religious complex at Borobudur. Let us also note that both of these powers, ie, both India and Indonesia are struggling with Muslim separatism (Kashmir in India, terrorist attacks in Indonesia, for example, on the island of Bali in 2002) and have strained relations with China, from where they feel threatened (Sino-Indian war in 1962 and later three years dominated by a massacre by government forces Jawajczyków Indonesian Communist Party of exposing the interests of the Chinese who settled in Indonesia), and finally the two countries have the tradition of cooperation within the framework established in 1955 at a conference in Bandung Indonesia, the non-aligned movement. Cooperation in India and Indonesia, the interest extended to these two powers the Pacific Islands, could lead to South Asia and South-Eastern Europe and the Pacific forces likely play a role in balance, and a tongue weight of the rivalry between the attempt to divide among themselves the dominance giants in those regions of the United States and China Folk. On the other hand, the output states of South Asia to the Pacific, would be situated much stronger justification than the historical and cultural westernisation in the region so far it brings together a PIF (Pacific Islands Forum - Pacific Islands Forum), while not jeopardizing the extent of its traditional identity as in the past threatened the dominance of the West and Japan, and as it is now would threaten the dominance of China or the continuance of these countries in the structures of the West. Integrated internally Polynesia, geopolitically associated with Indonesia and India, would then become re obrotnym kingpin of world politics.
Ronald Lasecki
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